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Do you really know what’s in the Obama Healthcare Bill?

I don’t think the average American actually took the time to read the Obama Health Care Bill

I don’t know about you;but I refuse to pay for anyone to get an abortion. Not only do I disagree with abortions but it’s my money and I don’t want it used to commit a mortal sin. If she wants an abortion let her pay for it herself. How dare the government tell me what to do? As far as I know forcing Americans to have health care is not only wrong but it’s unconstitutional. Have any of radical left-wing democrats ever read the United States Constitution It’s clear that they have no interest in what the American people want. The Rasmussen Poll &  the Quinnipiac clearly shows the proof. I can’t understand why these democrats hate this country and they go around the world apologizing for the wrong we have done yet they choose to live in The United States of America? Why not move to Europe? I’m also sick to death of the race card being dealt. Americans oppose Health Care because it’s bad for our country and has nothing to do with race. Don’t let them shame you into standing down. Let’s keep up the fight and kill this bill.

There is a disturbing reason why the Democrat controlled
Congress bribed, arm-twisted and hid the massive health
care takeover bill from our view…

Please see the message below from our friends at the
Media Research Center, and after reading this message
take a moment to sign their petition demanding the media
report the real truth about the ObamaCare plan.

Grassroots Action

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

From the Desk of:
David Martin, Executive Vice President

Why is the Senate rushing to pass their mammoth health care
takeover plan before Christmas and before anyone has time
to read it?

Because they don’t want any of us to know what’s in it!

Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid bought off support for his
2,000+ page health care takeover bill, and apparently will
pass the $2.5 trillion ObamaCare plan through the Senate
with a vote planned for Christmas Eve.

Meanwhile, instead of shining the light of truth on this
socialist experiment, the left-wing media are applying a
full-court press to sell ObamaCare.  They swoon over Reid
and Obama, while ignoring or marginalizing those who
oppose a government takeover of health care that will
gut Medicare and bankrupt our country.

Why the rush? What happened to the promise of transparency?
We have a right to know the dirty details hidden in this
bill before the Senate votes.

These are questions the so-called “news” media should be
asking as they aggressively turn over every rock and shine
a penetrating light into every nook and crevice of this
monstrosity of a health care plan…

But no, the headlines and news stories vilify the opposition
for using “delay tactics” while heroic liberals “race against
the clock” to pass this “historic” legislation.

Rasean, don’t buy the media spin and lies!

The time is NOW for citizens to collectively rise up and
demand the media report the real truth about health care
“reform” plans that will almost assuredly destroy our
quality of care and take our economy to the very brink
of destruction!

The media need to come clean and admit that the Senate bill,
if passed, would represent the largest expansion of abortion
since Roe v. Wade!

The Media Research Center is calling on ALL Action team
members to take immediate action in two very important ways:

+ + Action Item 1: Sign our Petition

Take a moment right now to sign our national petition demanding
the media come clean on ObamaCare.

Click here to sign:

http://www.grassfire.net/r.asp?u=23805&RID=20475534

Right now the MRC is finalizing a last-minute petition delivery
to the major news outlets — calling them out and demanding
they report the truth in this health care debacle!

A just-released Zogby poll measured the public’s outrage at the
“railroading” of Senate Majority Leader Reid’s health care bill.
An astounding 84 percent of Americans believe the bill was
crafted to be so long so that earmarks and other nefarious
details could be hidden and voted on before the public has
a chance to see them.

+ + Action Item 2: Call Your Senators

After signing our petition, call your Connecticut Senators
and demand they read this bill before they vote on it.

Again, the American taxpayers are on the hook
for ObamaCare.

We are the ones who will be forced to enroll in
this plan. We are the ones who will lose our right
to make our own personal and private health care
decisions. We are the ones who will watch helplessly
as the federal government absorbs another one-sixth
of the U.S. economy.

We are the ones-along with our children and grand-children –
who will be forced to pay for this monstrosity!

We have the right to know what is in this bill before it is passed!

Here is your contact information:

Sen. Dodd  202-224-2823

Sen. Lieberman  202-224-4041

We are urging all members of the Action team to call EVERY DAY –
until the vote is taken!

Rasean, the outrage needs to be palpable — both toward
elected officials and the so-called “news” media whose active
deception of the public is reprehensible. That why we are counting
on our MRC Action team to help “raise the roof” over these next
few critical days!

Thank you for standing with the MRC.

David Martin

Thanksgiving Special-Reh Doggs Random Thoughts

more about “Spymac.com : Thanksgiving Special-Reh…“, posted with vodpod

Why Is Turkey Served on Thanksgiving?

When you think of Thanksgiving you can practically smell the turkey baking in the oven. But, you might stop and wonder why we actually serve turkey on Thanksgiving? Many believe the pilgrims had turkey on that first Thanksgiving day although we now know that is more than likely not the case. In fact, it is much more likely that cod, seal, lobster, venison, fowl, and the like were served at the very first feast and not turkey. So, how did the turkey become the main part of our holiday meal?

Maybe the Reason Why We Eat Turkey Is
There are lots of interesting stories behind the turkey being Thanksgivings most important dish. One is that Queen Elizabeth was celebrating a Fall Harvest and celebrated with a baked goose as this was considered a delicacy and a celebration indeed. Upon hearing that the Spanish Armada had sunk as it was on its way to attack England the Queen was so pleased with the news that she ordered an additional roast goose. Englanders were so accustomed to roast goose being associated to celebrations and that was what they would have celebrated with had the New Colony been full of wild geese. But, this was not the case and wild turkeys were much more plentiful. So, as they started a new life they also started a new tradition of serving turkey on days of celebration and giving thanks.

Of course, there could be plenty of other sound reasons why we eat turkey on Thanksgiving Day and some people certainly have their own ideas. However, on thing is for certain. We dont eat turkey on Thanksgiving Day because the pilgrims did because it is almost certain that they did not. So, while we like to imagine the pilgrims and Indians sitting down for a big turkey meal followed by pumpkin pie it just didnt happen that way. When it comes down to the real reason you will just need to make up your mind what you believe!

 

I presume it was because the Native Americans introduced the bird to the Pilgrims (but not necessarily on Thanksgiving Day). It was a large bird that was not migratory and therefore was available throughout the year. It was large enough to feed more than one family.

Have you ever eaten a wild turkey? Moma-mia! If cooked right, it tastes much better than a Butter-Ball and a lot less fat in your diet. Wild turkeys feed on acorns and other natural products(including insects and small reptiles, etc.) that give them a totally different taste.

 

Reh Dogg Christmas Give Away 2009

Viewers can get free Reh Dogg stuff no strings attached. All you have to do is e-mail your information to: santashelper@rehdogg.com Shireal Renee has a contest as well. Win a date with Reh Dogg. Submit your picture and a brief description about yourself to daterehdogg@rehdogg.com. Offer and contests ends December 15,2009. To win a date you must be 18 years or older.

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Segment 1- Friendships

Segment 2- Q&A

Segment 3- Rejection

Segment 4- Depression

Segment 5- Bullies

Segment 6- Rant & Raves

Segment 7- Psycho analyzing people

Segment 8- Obsession

Segment 9- Spitfulness

Segment 10- Public school indoctrination

Segment 11- Sex & Drugs

Segment 12- Trust & Insecurities

Segment 13- Love, Hate, & Break-Ups

Segment 14- Drug Addiction Interview with DJ Naturally Aspirated 1 of 3

Segment 14- 2 of 3

Segment 14- 3 of 3

Segment 15- Rant & raves about Racism in America 1 of 2

Segment 15- 2 of 2

Segment 16- Why men like skinny women

Segment 17- Girls who like sports

Racism on the rise in America (It’s a Lie) Liberals keep it Alive.

Although the term racism usually denotes race-based prejudice, violence, discrimination, or oppression, the term can also have varying and contested definitions. Racialism is a related term, sometimes intended to avoid these negative meanings. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, racism is a belief or ideology that all members of each racial group possess characteristics or abilities specific to that race, especially to distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another racial group or racial groups.

The Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary defines racism as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular racial group, and that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief. The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism as: “the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that one’s own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others.”

The concept that discrimination can be based on “race” presupposes the existence of “race” itself. However, the US Government’s Human Genome Project has announced that the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no distinct genetic basis to racial types.^[2] Based on this evidence, “racial characteristics” logically cannot exist either.

According to the Human Genome Project, skin color does exist as a matter of science.^[2] So, that which is commonly referred to as “racism” could be more scientifically referred to as “skin color-aroused discrimination”. The term “skin color aroused discrimination” has the benefit that it is based on verifiable science, is not based on disproved notions of science, and does not perpetuate a false belief in the disproved concept of biological “race”.^[2]

Legal

The UN does not define “racism”, however it does define “racial discrimination”: according to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,

the term “racial discrimination” shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. ‘^[3]

This definition does not make any difference between prosecutions based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two remains debatable among anthropologists.^[4] According to British law, racial group means “any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin”.^[5]

Sociological

Some sociologists have defined racism as a system of group privilege. In Portraits of White Racism, David Wellman has defined racism as “culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities”.^[6] Sociologists Noël A. Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as “…a highly organized system of ‘race’-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/’race’ supremacy. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,”.^[7] Sociologist and former American Sociological Association president Joe Feagin argues that the United States can be characterized as a “total racist society” because racism is used to organize every social institution”.^[8]

More recently, Feagin has articulated a comprehensive theory of racial oppression in the U.S. in his book Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression (Routledge, 2006). Feagin examines how major institutions have been built upon racial oppression which was not an accident of history, but was created intentionally by white Americans. In Feagin’s view, white Americans labored hard to create a system of racial oppression in the 17th century and have worked diligently to maintain the system ever since. While Feagin acknowledges that changes have occurred in this racist system over the centuries, he contends that key and fundamental elements have been reproduced over nearly four centuries, and that U.S. institutions today reflect the racialized hierarchy created in the 17th century. Today, as in the past, racial oppression is not just a surface-level feature of this society, but rather pervades, permeates, and interconnects all major social groups, networks, and institutions across the society. Feagin’s definition stands in sharp contrast to psychological definitions that assume racism is an “attitude” or an irrational form of bigotry that exists apart from the organization of social structure.

Barbara Trepagnier’s research shows that virtually all whites hold some negative stereotypes and assumptions about African Americans and other racial–ethnic minorities, what she calls silent racism. In her book, Silent Racism: How Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide (2006), Trepagnier demonstrates how the negative stereotypes and assumptions of whites reproduce institutional racism, also known as systemic racism. She argues that the oppositional categories commonly used to think about racism—Racist and Not Racist—hide silent racism and other insidious forms such as color-blind racism. Replacing the outdated categories with a continuum labeled More Racist and Less Racist would expose these subtle forms of racism that are more closely linked to racial injustice than outright bigotry is.

Color-blind racism as developed by Eduardo Bonilla-Silva in Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality (2003) refers to the claim by some whites that racism is no longer an issue since passage of the 1960s civil rights legislation. According to Bonilla-Silva, color-blind racism is an attempt to maintain white privilege without appearing racist.

Types

An anti-discrimination poster in a Hong Kong subway station, 2005

Racial discrimination

Racial discrimination is treating people differently through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to races. Racial segregation policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers, including Dean Karlan and Marianne Bertrand, at the MIT and the University of Chicago found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as “sounding black”. These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having “white-sounding names” to receive callbacks for interviews. In contrast, institutions and courts have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done to promote a diverse work or educational environment, even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualified applicants ^[9][10]. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States‘ long history of discrimination (i.e. Jim Crow laws, etc.)^[11]

Institutional

Further information: Institutional racism, State racism, Affirmative action, Racial profiling, and Racism by country

Institutional racism (also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as “the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin”.^[12]

Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were “the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples.”^[13]

Economic

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Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination which is caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in the parents’ generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. (e.g. A member of race Y, Mary, has her opportunities adversely affected (directly and/or indirectly) by the mistreatment of her ancestors of race Y.)

A hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. The thinking behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit-driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies.

Declarations against racial discrimination

Racial discrimination contradicts the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen issued during the French Revolution and the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, signed after World War II, which all postulate equality between all human beings.

In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc. — to “drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups“. The statement condemned scientific racism theories which had played a role in the Holocaust. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning “the race question,” and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal’s An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in “Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka“.^[14]

The United Nations uses the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1966:

…any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)^[15]

In 2001, the European Union explicitly banned racism along with many other forms of social discrimination in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to Institutions of the European Union: “Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality.”^[16]

Ideology

A racist political campaign poster from the 1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election

A sign on a racially segregated beach in South Africa during apartheid

As an ideology, racism existed during the 19th century as “scientific racism“, which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity.^[17] Although such racist ideologies have been widely discredited after World War II and the Holocaust, the phenomena of racism and of racial discrimination have remained widespread all over the world. Some examples of this in present day are statistics including, but not limited to, the ratio of black men in prison to free black men vs. other races, physical abilities and mental ability statistics, and other data gathered by scientific groups. While these statistics are accurate, and can show trends, it’s inappropriate in most countries to assume that because a particular race has a high crime or low literacy rate, that the entire race of people automatically are criminals or unintelligent.

It was already noted by DuBois that, in making the difference between races, it is not race that we think about, but culture: “…a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life”^[18] Late nineteenth century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on “race”, ethnicity and “survival of the fittest” to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.^[19]

According to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination “Germanic” became virtually equivalent to superiority of race.

Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures, that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: “Racism does not originate from the existence of ‘races’. It creates them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences.”^[20]

This definition explicitly ignores the fiery polemic on the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of David C. Rowe “A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race.”^[21]

Until recent history this racist abuse of physical anthropology has been politically exploited. Apart from being unscientific, racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).^[22]

Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, racial segregation, hate speech and violence (such as pogroms, genocides and ethnic cleansings). Despite the persistence of racial stereotypes, humor and epithets in much everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal in many countries.

Ironically, anti-racism has also become a political instrument of abuse. Some politicians have practiced race baiting in an attempt to win votes. In a reversal of values, anti-racism is being propagated by despots in the service of obscurantism and the suppression of women. Said philosopher Pascal Bruckner:^[23]

“Anti-racism in the UN has become the ideology of totalitarian regimes who use it in their own interests.”

Ethnic nationalism

Further information: Ethnic nationalism and Romantic nationalism

After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was confronted with the new “nationalities question,” leading to ceaseless reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Nationalism had made its first striking appearance with the invention of the levée en masse by the French revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly-founded Republic against the Ancien Régime order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nation-states. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms (Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of France, etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (Kabinettskriege in German).

Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808-1813 – known in Spanish as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the “nationalities question” became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era, leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian unification completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, thus achieving the German unification.

Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, the “sick man of Europe,” was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, would lead to the creation after World War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans, which were always confronted, and remain so today, with the existence of “national minorities” in their borders.^[24] Ethnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states.

One of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder (1744-1803), Johan Fichte (1762-1814) in the Addresses to the German Nation (1808), Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), or also, in France, Jules Michelet (1798-1874). It was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such as Ernest Renan (1823-1892), who conceived of the nation as a community which, instead of being based on the Volk ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together (“the nation is a daily plebiscite“, 1882) or also John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).^[25]

Ethnic nationalism quickly blended itself with scientific racist discourses, as well as with “continental imperialist” (Hannah Arendt, 1951^[26]) discourses, for example in the pan-Germanism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. The Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband), created in 1891, promoted German imperialism, “racial hygiene” and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another, popular current, the Völkisch movement, was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which it also combined with modern antisemitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society, would participate in the founding of the German Workers’ Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. Pan-Germanism and played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1920s-1930s.^[26]

These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a “master race” (often the “Aryan race” or “Nordic race“) issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called “races”, in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses which posited the existence of a “race struggle” inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve “racial purity” and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.

Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not however limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far-right movements in France, took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide crisis affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Émile Zola, who wrote J’accuse in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet Maurice Barrès (1862-1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.^[27] At the same time, Charles Maurras (1868-1952), founder of the monarchist Action française movement, theorized the “anti-France,” composed of the “four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners” (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative métèques, i.e. wogs)). Indeed, to him the first three were all “internal foreigners,” who threatened the ethnic unity of the French people.

Ethnic conflicts

Further information: Ethnicity

Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term “racism” to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).

Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Historically, when an adversary is identified as “other” based on notions of race or ethnicity (particularly when “other” is construed to mean “inferior”), the means employed by the self-presumed “superior” party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac’s Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of “the novel idea that all Native people were ‘Indians,’ that all Euro-Americans were ‘Whites,’ and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other.” (Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, p. 208) Basil Davidson insists in his documentary, Africa: Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 1800s, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas.

The idea of slavery as an “equal-opportunity employer” was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were “subhuman” was the only loophole in the then accepted law that “men are created equal” that would allow for the sustenance of the Triangular Trade. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but then due to western diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about “race” developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf’s Europe and the People without History).

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that, during the Valladolid controversy in the middle of the 16th century, the Native Americans were natural slaves because they had no souls. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th-20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.

Academic variants

Further information: Race and intelligence

Drawings from Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon’s Indigenous races of the earth (1857), which suggested black people ranked between white people and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence.

Academic racism was pushed by white supremacists during the period when white people garnered great profits from slavery and colonialism. Academic racism had the effect of attempting to deny the culture, history and ancestry from the victims of the profitable slave and colonial systems. Owen ‘Alik Shahadah comments on this racism by stating: “Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa, other than raw material.”^[28]

Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, “I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences.”^[29] German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated: “The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.”^[30]

In the nineteenth century, the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel declared that “Africa is no historical part of the world.” Hegel further claimed that blacks had no “sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent” (On Blackness Without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany, Boston: C.W. Hall, 1982, p. 94).

Fewer than 30 years before Nazi Germany started World War II, the German Otto Weininger, claimed: “A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence” (Sex and Character, New York: G.P. Putnam, 1906, p. 302).

The German conservative Oswald Spengler remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour of Decision Spengler denounced “the ‘happy ending’ of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture” (The Hour of Decision, pp. 227–228). During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand Aryan agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt.^[30]

People Show (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.

Scientific variants

Main article: Scientific racism

Further information: Unilineal evolution

The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to at least the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the New Imperialism period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church’s resistance to positivist accounts of history, and its support of monogenism, that is that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history.

These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of “survival of the fittest“, a term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864, associated with ideas of competition which were named social Darwinism in the 1940s. Charles Darwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in The Descent of Man (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the “lowest savages” with European civilization.^[31][32]

At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of “degeneration of the race” and “blood heredity.” Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices.

Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of cultural anthropology (Franz Boas, etc.), the British school of social anthropology (Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, etc.), the French school of ethnology (Claude Lévi-Strauss, etc.), as well as the discovery of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances.

The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution in the 1960s, which seemed at first to be sufficient proof of the inanity of the “scientific racist” theories of the 19th centuries, which based their conception of evolution on “races”, a concept which first appeared to lose any sense at the genetic level. However, the modern resurgence of racist theories, in particular those related to the race and intelligence controversy, seems to show that genetics could also be used for ideological, racist purposes.

Heredity and eugenics

Further information: Eugenics

The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by Francis Galton (1822-1911), who used the then popular concept of degeneration. He applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged “inheritance of intelligence,” foreshadowing future uses of “intelligence testing” by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer Émile Zola (1840-1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, Les Rougon-Macquart, where he linked heredity to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (Son Excellence Eugène Rougon) and medicine (Le Docteur Pascal) and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism (L’Assommoir), prostitution (Nana), and homicide (La Bête humaine).

During the rise of Nazism in Germany, some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime’s racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century.^[33] According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, The Race Question, an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:

up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race… Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.

The Third Reich’s racial policies, its eugenics programs and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust, as well as Romani people in the Porrajmos (the Romani Holocaust) and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled The Race Question.

Polygenism and racial typologies

Further information: Polygenism and Typology (anthropology)

Works such as Arthur de Gobineau’s An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality which changed over time. Gobineau thus attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology. He was one of the first theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete “races.”

Gobineau’s theories would be expanded, in France, by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936)’s typology of races, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, “Aryan race”, “dolichocephalic“, was opposed to the “brachycephalic” race, of whom the “Jew” was the archetype. Vacher de Lapoug thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the “Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the “Homo alpinus” (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the “Homo mediterraneus” (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) He assimilated races and social classes, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Applying Galton’s eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge’s “selectionism” aimed first at achieving the annihilation of trade unionists, considered to be a “degenerate”; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. His “anthroposociology” thus aimed at blocking social conflict by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order^[34]

The same year than Vacher de Lapouge, William Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in The Races of Europe (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Others famous scientific authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who naturalized himself as German because of his admiration for the “Aryan race”) or Madison Grant, a eugenicist and author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916).

Human Zoos

Human Zoos (called “People Shows”), were an important means of bolstering popular racism by connecting it to scientific racism: they were both objects of public curiosity and of anthropology and anthropometry.^[35][36] Joice Heth, an African American slave, was displayed by P.T. Barnum in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of Saartjie Baartman, the “Hottentot Venus”, in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until World War II. Carl Hagenbeck, inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals beside humans who were considered as “savages”.^[37][38]

Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was displayed in 1906 by eugenicist Madison Grant, head of the Bronx Zoo, as an attempt to illustrate the “missing link” between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to Darwinism, creating a social Darwinism ideology which tried to ground itself in Darwin’s scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia.^[39] A “Congolese village” was on display as late as 1958 at the Brussels’ World Fair.

Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism

Biologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides were puzzled by the fact that race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that natural selection would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because most of the earliest humans, who lived in Africa, would never have met a member of a different race. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about “which side” another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance.

Their colleague Robert Kurzban designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the Memory confusion protocol, they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. The errors which the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the “correct” speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker “on the same side” as the “correct” speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the “sides” in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small. ^[40]

As state-sponsored activity

U.S government poster from WWII featuring a Japanese soldier depicted as a rat.

Main articles: Nazism and race, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Generalplan Ost, Eugenics in Showa Japan, Apartheid in South Africa, Racial segregation in the United States, Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia, and Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea

State racism – that is, institutions and practices of a nation-state that are grounded in racist ideology – has played a major role in all instances of settler colonialism, from the United States to Australia to Israel. It also played a prominent role in the Nazi Germany regime and fascist regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan’s Shōwa period. The politics of Zimbabwe promote discrimination against whites, in an effort of ethnically cleansing the country.[7]

State racism contributed as well to the formation of the Dominican Republic’s identity [8] and violent actions encouraged by Dominican governmental xenophobia against Haitans and “Haitian looking” people. Currently the Dominican Republic employs a de facto system of separatism for children and grandchildren of Haitians and black Dominicans, denying them birth certificates, education and access to health care.^[41] These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.^[42][43][44]

In history

In Antiquity

3,000–8,000 years ago, Indo-European-speaking nomadic groups from Europe, the Near East, Anatolia, and the Caucasus migrated to India.^[45] Following the discovery of the Indo-European languages in the 19th century, British historians put forth the Aryan invasion theory which argued that it was “Aryans” who and established the caste system, an elitist form of social organization that (according to the British) separated the “light-skinned” Indo-Aryan conquerors from the “conquered dark-skinned” indigenous Dravidian tribes through enforcement of “racial endogamy“.^[46][47]

This claim was used by the British, defining themselves as “purely Aryan”, to justify British Rule in India. Much of this was simply conjecture, fueled by British imperialism.^[48] Since the independence of South Asia from British rule, the Aryan invasion theory and subjugation of the dark skinned Dravidians in India” has become a staple polemic in South Asian geopolitics, including the propaganda of Indophobia in Pakistan.^[49]

Several authors have put forward the idea that racism may have its roots in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages. Chouki El Hamel has cited the Talmud, which divides mankind between the three sons of Noah, stating that “the descendants of Ham are cursed by being black, and [it] depicts Ham as a sinful man and his progeny as degenerates.”^[50] Bernard Lewis has cited the Greek philosopher Aristotle who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Greeks are free by nature, ‘barbarians‘ (non-Greeks) are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to despotic government, though Aristotle does not specify any particular races.^[51]

In Cicero’s Letters to Atticus, 68 BC-43 BC, Cicero states “Do not obtain your slaves from Britain because they are so stupid and so utterly incapable of being taught that they are not fit to form a part of the household of Athens.” Slavery began to be questioned in the Greek world, first in the Socratic Dialogues while the Stoics produced the first recorded condemnation of slavery. Slavery also occurred in ancient Israel and ancient Egypt, and the Bible contains passages that can be interpreted^[who?] as promoting, being neutral towards, or opposing racism.^[52][53][54]

In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance

Further information: Limpieza de sangre

Lewis also cites the Arab Empire, the first “truly universal civilization,” which brought together for the first time “peoples as diverse as the Chinese, the Indians, the people of the Middle East and North Africa, black Africans, and white Europeans.” The Qur’an, the Prophet Muhammad, and the overwhelming majority of Islamic jurists and theologians, all agreed that humankind has a single origin and rejected the idea of certain ethnic groups being superior to others. Despite this, some ethnic prejudices later developed among Arabs due to several reasons: their extensive conquests and slave trade; the influence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards Zanj (East African) and Turkic peoples;^[51] and the influence of Judeo-Christian ideas regarding divisions among humankind.^{[50][verification needed]}

According to J. Philippe Rushton, Arab relations with blacks whom the Muslims had dealt as slave traders for over 1000 years could be summed up as follows:

“

Although the Qur’an stated that there were no superior and inferior races and therefore no bar to racial intermarriage, in practice this pious doctrine was disregarded. Arabs did not want their daughters to marry even hybridized blacks. The Ethiopians were the most respected, the “Zanj” (Bantu and other Negroid tribes from East and West Africa south of the Sahara) the least respected, with Nubians occupying an intermediate position.[55]

”

In response to such views, the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz, himself of East African descent, wrote a book entitled Superiority Of The Blacks To The Whites,^[56] and explained why the Zanj were black in terms of environmental determinism in the “On the Zanj” chapter of The Essays.^[57] By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388-1446) writing: “It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals.”^[58]

Ibn Khaldun wrote:

“beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings.” “Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated.”^[59][60]

The 14th century Arab sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, has often been mistranslated to fit the needs of colonial propaganda.^[61] Although bias against those of very black complexion existed in the Arab world in the 15th century, it didn’t have as much stigma as it later would. Older translations of Ibn Khaldun, for example in The Negro land of the Arabs Examined and Explained which was written in 1841, gives excerpts of older translations that were not part of later colonial propaganda and show black Africans in a generally positive light.^[62] He also dispelled the Hamitic theory as a myth, stating that black skin was due to environmental determinism and not because of any curse.^[63] The Arabic geographer, Ibn Battuta, who had visited the Mali Empire in 1352, wrote many positive comments on black people.^[60][64]

Richard E. Nisbett has said that the question of racial superiority may go back at least a thousand years, to the time when the Umayyad Caliphate invaded Hispania, occupying most of the Iberian Peninsula for six centuries, where they founded the advanced civilization of Al-Andalus (711-1492). Al-Andalus coincided with La Convivencia, an era of religious tolerance, and with the Golden age of Jewish culture in Iberia (912, the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III – 1066, Granada massacre).^[65] It was followed by a violent Reconquista under the Reyes Catolicos (Catholic Kings), Ferdinand V and Isabella I. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic “blue blood” emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly white supremacist context, as author Robert Lacey explains:

It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat’s blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin–proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white man–Spain’s own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.^[66]

Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming “New Christians” which were despised and discriminated by the “Old Christians“. An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith.

In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis of Pombal in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The limpieza de sangre doctrine was also very common in the colonization of the Americas, where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one’s precise race and, by consequence, one’s place in society. This precise classification was described by Eduardo Galeano in the Open Veins of Latin America (1971). It included, among others terms, mestizo (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), castizo (75% European and 25% Native American), Spaniard (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), Mulatto (50% European and 50% African), Albarazado (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.

At the end of the Renaissance, the Valladolid debate (1550-1551) concerning the treatment of natives of the “New World” opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé de Las Casas to another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. The latter argued that “Indians” were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and natural law. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversy concerning racism, slavery and Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries.

Although anti-Semitism has a long European history, related to Christianism (anti-Judaism), racism itself is frequently described as a modern phenomenon. In the view of the French intellectual Michel Foucault, the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the “discourse of race struggle”, a historical and political discourse which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty.^[67] Philosopher and historian Michel Foucault argued that the first appearance of racism as a social discourse (as opposed to simple xenophobia, which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne’s work.

However, this “discourse of race struggle”, as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from 19th century biological racism, also known as “race science” or “scientific racism“. Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this “discourse of race struggle”, “race” is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a historical notion. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign’s discourse: it is used by the bourgeoisie, the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Fréret, and then, during the 1789 French Revolution, Sieyès, and afterward Augustin Thierry and Cournot. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the “race” as something closer to the sense of “nation”, that is, in his times, the “people”.

He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified nation-state is, of course, here an anachronism — which themselves formed different “races”. Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy, who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the “Franks“, while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans, who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest. Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers’ discourse on the “Nordic race” as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian “Gauls”, thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it “this new people born of slaves… mixture of all races and of all times“.

While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism, leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse which identified the “race” to the “folk“, leading to such movements as pan-Germanism, Zionism, pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and pan-Slavism, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological “races”, which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conflicts. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval “historical and political discourse of race struggle”. According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of “race” and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a “state racism” (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, Marxists also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle which provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of “race” into the historical notion of “class struggle“, defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In The Will to Knowledge (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the “race struggle” discourse: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of “blood heredity“, prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.

As part of colonialism in the 19th century

Further information: Second European colonization wave (19th century–20th century)

Authors such as Hannah Arendt, in her 1951 book The Origins of Totalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology (popular racism) which developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and the acts that accompanied them (such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide of 1904-1907 or the Armenian Genocide of 1915-1917). Rudyard Kipling’s poem The White Man’s Burden (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest of the world, though also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize subjugation and the dismantling of the traditional societies of indigenous peoples, which were thus conceived as humanitarian obligations as a result of these racist beliefs.

However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab slave trade in Africa,^[68] as well as in suppression of the slave trade in West Africa.^[69] Other colonialists recognized the depravity of their actions but persisted for personal gain and there are some Europeans during the time period who objected to the injustices caused by colonialism and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the Hottentot Venus was displayed in England in the beginning of the nineteenth century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness (1899), a clear criticism of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II of Belgium.

Examples of racial theories used to legitimize the imperialist conquest^{[citation needed]} include the creation of the Hamitic ethno-linguistic group during the European exploration of Africa. Used in different ways, the term was first used by Johann Ludwig Krapf (1810-1881) to qualify all languages of Africa spoken by black people.^{[citation needed]} It was then restricted by Karl Friedrich Lepsius (1810-1877) to non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages.^[70]

The term Hamite then became quite popular and was applied to different populations within Africa mainly comprising Ethiopians, Eritreans, Somalis, Berbers, and Nubians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.^[71][72][73] Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than Black Africans, and more akin to themselves and Semitic peoples.^[74] In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the Caucasian race, along with the Indo-Europeans, Dravidians, Semites, and the Mediterranean race.

However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, a failing that was usually ascribed to interbreeding with Negroes. In the mid-20th century, the German scholar Carl Meinhof (1857-1944) claimed that the Bantu race was formed by a merger of Hamitic and Negro races. The Hottentots (Nama or Khoi) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and Bushmen (San) races — both being termed nowadays as Khoisan peoples). The term Hamitic is nowadays obsolete.^{[citation needed]}

Racism spread throughout the “New World” in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Whitecapping which started in Indiana in the late 19th century soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on.

On June 5, 1873, Sir Francis Galton, distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to The Times:

“My proposal is to make the encouragement of Chinese settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race” “I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law.” ^[75]

In the Age of Enlightenment

While modern racism has an essentialist and biological conception of race, racist or xenophobic opinions have been shared by some authors, from the Antiquity to the Age of Enlightenment. However, this early form of racism did not conceive of “race” as a biological concept — as biology itself did not exist as such —, but as the accidental effect of climate on physical traits.^[76] With the Age of Discovery, the diversity of mankind became an important topic of research, leading to debates concerning monogenism and polygenism, respectively endorsing the unique origin of mankind (coherent with the Genesis Biblical account) and the multiple origins of mankind.

Pierre de Maupertuis (1698-1759), for example, reconciled the Biblical account with the present diversity of “races” in his Essai de philosophie morale (1749, Essay on Moral Philosophy), explaining “racial” differences by climatic factors.^[76] He thus explained the colour of black people through the inheritance of acquired characteristics, claiming white was the original colour of mankind.^[76] He also highlighted the spiritual strength of Africans seized as slaves, pointing out how, like the Ancient Stoic philosophers, they prefer to die rather than to survive to capture.^[76]

Arguments on the influence of climate found additional weight with Buffon’s Histoire naturelle in the middle of the 18th century, and his thesis on the unity of mankind was taken back by Diderot and d’Alembert’s Encyclopédie in the article Humaine, espèce (Human, Specie).^[76] According to Ann Thomson, although Buffon did establish a “clear hierarchy [...] between the beautiful white civilised races of the temperate zone and those savages who have degenerated in more extreme climates, his emphasis on the unity of the human race and his distinction between humans and other animals were extremely influential.^[76]” The abolitionists thus used his arguments to show that Africans were not naturally inferior, and could be improved by different treatment and different climate.^[76]

The abbé Demanet (1767) claimed that a Portuguese colony in Africa had become black after several generations, due to the effect of climate, a story which was given wide credence by abolitionists, quoted for example by Cabanis (1757-1808) and Thomas Clarkson (1760-1846)^[76][76] The abolitionist Physiocrat abbé Pierre-Joseph-André Roubaud alleged that black Africans would change skin colour if they lived in different climatic conditions.^[76] According to Ann Thomson,

What emerges from these examples is the overwhelming desire to insist on the unity of the human race by emphasizing the effect of the climate and other environmental causes, but not necessarily to claim the equality of all humans; for the existence of a hierarchy is not systematically denied but, on the contrary, frequently accepted [exceptions quoted by Thomson includes James Dunbar and the abbé Grégoire.]. This of course was to have long-lasting effects in the Nineteenth Century, when the arguments about climate were countered and the hierarchy was seen to be permanent, as the differences between humans were innate.^[76]

Moral factors were also considered to influence physical and psychical traits. The American abolitionist Anthony Benezet stated, in the Historical Account of Guinea (1772), that Africans in Africa were a sociable, virtuous and intelligent people; but that their servile condition in America explained their “degeneration” and adoption of the vices of Europeans.^[76] Furthermore, the theory of the Great Chain of Being, which asserted a continuity between animals and humans, thus contradicting Christian religion (and henceforth supported by materialists such as Diderot) was used by some, such as Edward Long, spokesman for the West India Lobby, or Charles White’s Account of the Regular Gradation in Man (1799 — White denied the effect of climate) to assert the animal nature of some humans.^[76]

An improvised camp for Soviet prisoners of war. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Red Army POWs, whom they viewed as “subhuman”.^[77]

20th century

Japan proposed racial equality at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Japanese racial equality proposal got large majority, however the proposal was declined by few countries strong oppositions. Burma, China, India and Japan held Greater East Asia Conference in 1943. The conference declared working for the abolition of racial discrimination. Imperial Japanese Army general Kiichiro Higuchi and colonel Norihiro Yasue saved 20,000 Jews from Germans genocide. Japanese diplomat Chiune Sugihara saved 6,000 Jews from Germans genocide. According to Herbert Bix, Racial discrimination against other Asians was habitual in Imperial Japan.^[78]

The Nazis considered Jews, Gypsies, Poles along with other Slavic people like the Russians, Ukrainians, Czechs and anyone else who was not an “Aryan” according to the contemporary Nazi race terminology to be subhuman (Untermensch). The Nazis rationalized that the Germans, being a super human (Übermenschlich) race, had a biological right to displace, eliminate and enslave inferiors.^[79] Some 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis during the Holocaust.

After the war, under the “Big Plan”, Generalplan Ost foresaw the eventual expulsion of more than 50 million non-Germanized Slavs of Eastern Europe through forced migration, as well as some of the Balts, beyond the Ural Mountains and into Siberia. In their place, Germans would be settled in an extended “living space” (Lebensraum) of the 1000-Year Empire (Tausendjähriges Reich). Herbert Backe was one of the orchestrators of the Hunger Plan – the plan to starve tens of millions of Slavs in order to ensure steady food supplies for the German people and troops.^[80]

Heinrich Himmler speech to about 100 SS Group Leaders in Posen, occupied Poland, 1943:

“What happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter indifference to me… Whether the other peoples live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for our culture; apart from that it does not interest me. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from exhaustion while digging a tank ditch interests me only in so far as the tank ditch is completed for Germany… We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent attitude to animals, will also adopt a decent attitude to these human animals, but it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and to bring them ideals… I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very serious subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, nevertheless we shall never speak of it in public. I mean the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race.”^[81]

Inter-minority variants

This section reads like a list of grievances without any flow of prose.

Inter-minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of power in society.^{[citation needed]} Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur, for example conflicts between blacks and Korean Americans (notably in the Los Angeles riots of 1992), between blacks and Jews (such as the riots in Crown Heights in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such as Latinos), or towards whites.^{[82][83][84][85]}

There has been a long-running racial tension between African Americans and Mexican Americans.^[86][87][88] There have been several significant riots in California prisons where Mexican American inmates and African Americans have specifically targeted each other based on racial reasons.^[89][90] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa.^{[91][92][93][94]} In the late 1920s in California, there was animosity between the Filipinos and the Mexicans and between whites and Filipinos since they competed for the same jobs.^[95] Recently, there has also been an increase in racial violence between African immigrants and Blacks who have already lived in the country for generations.^[96]

The Aztlan movement has been described as racist. The movement’s goal involves the pursuit of repossessing the American southwest. It has also been called the Mexican “reconquista” (re-conquest) whose name was inspired by the Spanish reconquista, which led to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain.^[97] According to gang experts and law enforcement agents, a longstanding race war between the Mexican Mafia and the Black Guerilla family, a rival African American prison gang, has generated such intense racial hatred among Mexican Mafia leaders or shot callers, that they have issued a “green light” on all blacks. A sort of gang-life fatwa, this amounts to a standing authorization for Latino gang members to prove their mettle by terrorizing or even murdering any blacks sighted in a neighborhood claimed by a gang loyal to the Mexican Mafia.^[98]

In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just as strong as any minority group suffers with the majority population. In Birmingham, there have been long-term divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the Handsworth riots and in the smaller 2005 Birmingham riots. In Dewsbury, a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Kurds and South Asians.^[99]

During the Congo Civil War (1998-2003), Pygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides of the war regarded them as “subhuman” and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.^[100] A report released by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns Botswana’s treatment of the ‘Bushmen‘ as racist.^[101]

Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled from Mauritania in the late 1980s.^[102] In the Sudan, black African captives in the civil war were often enslaved, and female prisoners were often used sexually.^[103] The Darfur conflict has been described by some as a racial matter.^[104] In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport the Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger to Chad.^[105] This population numbered about 150,000.^[106] While the Government was rounding Arabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.^[107] The Ethiopian Jewish community’s integration to Israeli society has been complicated by racist attitudes on the part of some elements of Israeli society and the official establishment.^[108][109] The Israeli media reported that residents of Pisgat Ze’ev, a large Jewish settlement in East Jerusalem, had formed a vigilante-style patrol to stop interracial dating between Arab men and local Jewish girls. In the 2007 poll, more than half of Israeli Jews said that intermarriage should be equated with “national treason”.^[110]

The mass demonstrations and riots against African students in Nanjing, China, lasted from December 1988 to January 1989.^[111] Bar owners in central Beijing had been forced “not to serve black people or Mongolians” during the 2008 Summer Olympics.^[112] Some neighborhood committees in Guangzhou bar Africans from living in residential complexes.^[113]

In France, home to Europe’s largest population of Muslims — about 6 million — as well as the continent’s largest community of Jews, about 600,000, anti-Jewish violence, property destruction, and racist language has been wildly increasing over the last several years and French-Jews are worried more every month that it will spiral even higher. Jewish leaders perceive as intensifying anti-Semitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or African heritage, but also growing among Caribbean islanders from former colonies.^[114][115]

Serious race riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus erupted in 1949.^[116] Ne Win’s rise to power in Burma in 1962 and his relentless persecution of “resident aliens” led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.^[117] They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.^[118] The Zanzibar Revolution of January 12, 1964 put an end to the local Arab dynasty. Thousands of Arabs and Indians in Zanzibar were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island.^[119] On 4 August 1972, Idi Amin, President of Uganda, ethnically cleansed Uganda’s Asians giving them 90 days to leave the country.^[120] The Jakarta riots of May 1998 targeted many Chinese Indonesians.^[121] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998. Xenophobia against Chinese migrants is currently on the rise in Africa^{[122][123][124]} and Oceania.^[125][126] Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people,^[127] broke out in Papua New Guinea in May 2009.^[128] The Fiji coup of 2000 has provoked a violent backlash against the Indo-Fijians.^[129] Fiji citizens of Indian, European, mixed race or other island heritage have become second-class citizens.^[130][131] Racial divisions also exist in Guyana^[132] and Malaysia.^[133]

See also

• Affirmative Action
• Anti-racism
• Apartheid
• Assimilationism
• Black Panthers
• Black separatism
• British National Party
• Capital Jury Project
• Chicano Movement
• Discrimination
• Eugenics
• Heroes of the Fiery Cross
• History of slavery
• Jim Crow laws
• Intersectionality
• Ku Klux Klan
• La Raza
• Liberation theology
• List of racism-related topics
• Mike Campbell (Pvt) Ltd and Others v Republic of Zimbabwe
• Multiculturalism
• Multiracism
• Nation of Islam
• Nazism
• Neo-Nazism
• Racial equality proposal
• Persecution of Muslims in Burma
• Person of color
• Prejudice
• Race and Inequality
• Race relations (sociology)
• Racial issues in Japan
• Racism by country
• Racism in the LGBT community
• Residential Segregation
• Reverse discrimination
• Slavery in Africa
• Social criticism
• Teaching for social justice
• The Good Citizen
• White power skinhead
• Whiteness studies
• Xenophobia
• Yellow Peril

References & notes

1. ^ “racism“. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009-03-16. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/racism. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
2. ^ ^{a b c} “Minorities, Race, and Genomics“. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
3. ^ UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, NEW YORK 7 March 1966
4. ^ A. Metraux (1950) “United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race” in American Anthropologist 53(1): 142-145)
5. ^ The CPS : Racist and Religious Crime – CPS Prosecution Policy
6. ^ Wellman, David T. (1993). Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. x.
7. ^ Cazenave, Noël A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). “Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course” Race and Society 2. pp. 25–50.
8. ^ Feagin, Joe R. (2000). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 6.
9. ^ http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-04-22-scotus-firefighters_N.htm?loc=interstitialskip
10. ^ http://academic.udayton.edu/race/04needs/education03.htm
11. ^ Sendhil Mullainathan and Marianne Bertrand (2003). “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination“, NBER Working Paper No. 9873, July, 2003).
12. ^ Richard W. Race, Critics have replied that Carmichael’s definition glosses over individual responsibility and leaves no room to question whether the members of a group are failing or not meeting standards due not to discrimination but due to their own dysfunctional behaviour and bad choices. Analysing ethnic education policy-making in England and WalesPDF (47.2 KiB), Sheffield Online Papers in Social Research, University of Sheffield, p.12. Accessed 20 June 2006.
13. ^ ““Effects on Africa”“. “Ron Karenga“. http://www.africawithin.com/karenga/ethics.htm.
14. ^ “Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)”, by Harald E.L. Prins, UNESCO (English)
15. ^ Text of the Convention, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1966
16. ^ http://www.lbr.nl/internationaal/charter%20uk.html
17. ^ Pierre-André Taguieff, La force du préjugé, 1987 (French)
18. ^ The Conservation of Races – W.E.B. DuBois, 1897 (p. 21)[1]
19. ^ The Idea of National Superiority in Central Europe, 1880 – 1918, Marius Turda, ISBN 0-7734-6180-9 ISBN 978-0-7734-6180-2, 2005
20. ^ National Analytical Study on Racist Violence and Crime, RAXEN Focal Point for ITALY – Annamaria Rivera [2]
21. ^ David C. Rowe in Heredity 87 (2001) 254-255 : Book review on The Emperor’s New Clothes: biological theories of race at the new millennium. Joseph L. Graves Jr. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. 2001, ISBN 0-8135-2847-X) [3]
22. ^ INTER-AMERICAN CONVENTION AGAINST RACISM AND ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AND INTOLERANCE – Study prepared by the Inter-American Juridical Committee, 2002 [4]
23. ^ [5] Boycot Durban II By Pascal Bruckner, 16/06/2008
24. ^ On this “nationalities question” and the problem of nationalism, see the relevant articles for a non-exhaustive account of the state of contemporary historical researches; famous works include: Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (1983); Eric Hobsbawm,The Age of Revolution : Europe 1789-1848 (1962), Nations and Nationalism since 1780 : programme, myth, reality (1990); Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (1991); Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990-1992 (1990); Anthony D. Smith, Theories of Nationalism (1971), etc.
25. ^ John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government, 1861
26. ^ ^{a b} Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
27. ^ Maurice Barrès, Le Roman de l’énergie nationale (The Novel of National Energy, a trilogy started in 1897)
28. ^ The Removal of Agency from Africa by Owen ‘Alik Shahadah
29. ^ RACE AND RACISM IN THE WORKS OF DAVID HUME by Eric Morton
30. ^ ^{a b} [Race and Racism ( O.R.P.) (Oxford Readings in Philosophy) (Paperback)] by Bernard Boxill
31. ^ Charles Darwin (1871). “The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex“. John Murray. http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
32. ^ Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James (1991). Darwin. London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group. ISBN 0-7181-3430-3. OCLC 185764721. pp. 28, 147, 580.
33. ^ UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
34. ^ Matsuo Takeshi (University of Shimane, Japan). L’Anthropologie de Georges Vacher de Lapouge: Race, classe et eugénisme (Georges Vacher de Lapouge anthropology) in Études de langue et littérature françaises 2001, n°79, pp. 47-57. ISSN 0425-4929 ; INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST : 25320, 35400010021625.0050 (Abstract resume on the INIST-CNRS
35. ^ On A Neglected Aspect Of Western Racism, Kurt Jonassohn, December 2000
36. ^ Pascal Blanchard, Sandrine Lemaire and Nicolas Bancel (August 2000). “Human zoos – Racist theme parks for Europe’s colonialists“. Le Monde Diplomatique. http://mondediplo.com/2000/08/07humanzoo. (English); “Ces zoos humains de la République coloniale“. Le Monde diplomatique. August 2000. http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/08/BANCEL/14145.html. (French) (available to everyone)
37. ^ Human Zoos, by Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, in Le Monde diplomatique, August 2000 (English) French – free
38. ^ Savages and Beasts – The Birth of the Modern Zoo, Nigel Rothfels, Johns Hopkins University Press (English)
39. ^ The Colonial Exhibition of May 1931PDF (96.6 KiB) by Michael G. Vann, History Dept., Santa Clara University, USA
40. ^ Robert Kurzban , John Tooby, and Leda Cosmides (December 18, 2001). “Can race be erased? Coalitional computation and social categorization” (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 (26): 15387–15392. doi:10.1073/pnas.251541498. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 11742078. http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/papers/eraserace.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-11. . The authors provide a summary and other comments at “(untitled)“. http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/erasingrace.htm. .
41. ^ AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL USA http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGUSA20070321002
42. ^ Edward Russel of Liverpool, The Knights of Bushido, 2002, p.238, Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the making of modern Japan, 2001, p.313, 314, 326, 359, 360, Karel Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese power, 1989, p.263-272
43. ^ Anti-Haitianism, Historical Memory, and the Potential for Genocidal Violence in the Dominican Republic University of Toronto Press ISSN 1911-0359 (Print) 1911-9933 (Online) Issue Volume 1, Number 3 / December 2006 DOI 10.3138/7864-3362-3R24-6231
44. ^ El Diario/LA PRENSA OnLine
45. ^ Trivedi, Bijal P (2001-05-14). “[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Indo-European.shtml Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced the origins of India's caste system]“. Genome News Network (J. Craig Venter Institute). http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Indo-European.shtml. Retrieved 2005-01-27.
46. ^ Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations — Bamshad et al. 11 (6): 994. Genome Research.
47. ^ Scientists Connect Indian Castes and European Heritage. Scientific American. May 15, 2001.
48. ^ From Discovery of India by Jawaharlal Nehru, reproduced from “History : Modern India” (p108) by S.N. Sen, New Age Publishers, ISBN 8122417744
49. ^ Ayesha Jalal. (1995). Conjuring Pakistan: History as Official Imagining. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 27(1). pp. 73-89.
50. ^ ^{a b} El Hamel, Chouki (2002). “‘Race’, slavery and Islam in Maghribi Mediterranean thought: the question of the Haratin in Morocco”. The Journal of North African Studies 7 (3): 29–52 [39–40].
51. ^ ^{a b} Bernard Lewis (2003). “From Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry“. in Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman, Angela Bodino. Racism: A Global Reader. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 52–8. ISBN 0765610604.
52. ^ Schwartz, Regina M. (1997). The curse of Cain: the violent legacy of monotheism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 103. ISBN 0-226-74200-8.
53. ^ John Byron, Slavery Metaphors in Early Judaism and Pauline Christianity: A Traditio-historical and Exegetical Examination, Mohr Siebeck, 2003, ISBN 3161480791, p.40
54. ^ Roland De Vaux, John McHugh, Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1997, ISBN 080284278X, p.80
55. ^ Race, Evolution, and Behavior, unabridged edition, 1997, by J. Phillipe Rushton pg 97-98
56. ^ Yosef A.A. Ben-Jochannan (1991), African Origins of Major Western Religions, p. 231, 238. Black Classic Press, ISBN 0933121296
57. ^ “Medieval Sourcebook: Abû Ûthmân al-Jâhiz: From The Essays, c. 860 CE“. Medieval Sourcebook. July 1998. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/860jahiz.html. Retrieved 2008-12-07.
58. ^ Lewis, Bernard (2002). Race and Slavery in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. pp. 93. ISBN 0195053265.
59. ^ [6]. The Muqaddimah, Translated by F. Rosenthal
60. ^ ^{a b} West Asian views on black Africans during the medieval era
61. ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/3590803 Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldun Orientalist, by Abdelmajid Hannoum © 2003 Wesleyan University.
62. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=6swTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA61 The Negro land of the Arabs Examined and Explained
63. ^ El Hamel, Chouki (2002). “‘Race’, slavery and Islam in Maghribi Mediterranean thought: the question of the Haratin in Morocco”. The Journal of North African Studies 7 (3): 29–52 [41–2].
64. ^ Sir Hamilton Gibb (translator, 1929), Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354, p. 329, Routledge, ISBN 0710095686
65. ^ Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed.
66. ^ Robert Lacey, Aristocrats. Little, Brown and Company, 1983, p. 67
67. ^ Michel Foucault, Society Must Be Defended (1976-77)
68. ^ Royal Navy and the Slave Trade : Battles : History
69. ^ Chasing Freedom Exhibition: the Royal Navy and the Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
70. ^ Merriam Webster (editor), Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 10 Rev Ed edition, (Merriam-Webster: 1998), p.563
71. ^ Ronald James Harrison, Africa and the Islands, (Wiley: 1965), p.58
72. ^ Dorothy Dodge, African Politics in Perspective, (Van Nostrand: 1966), p.11
73. ^ Michael Senior, Tropical Lands: a human geography, (Longman: 1979), p.59
74. ^ A. H. M. Jones, Elizabeth Monroe, History of Abyssinia, (Kessinger Publishing: 2003), p.25
75. ^ How China’s taking over Africa, and why the West should be VERY worried
76. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m} Ann Thomson, Issues at stake in eighteenth-century racial classification, Cromohs, 8 (2003): 1-20 (English)
77. ^ Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler’s Willing Executioners (p. 290) – “2.8 million young, healthy Soviet POWs” killed by the Germans, “mainly by starvation … in less than eight months” of 1941-42, before “the decimation of Soviet POWs … was stopped” and the Germans “began to use them as laborers” (emphasis added).
78. ^ Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p.280
79. ^ Hitler’s Plans for Eastern Europe. Selections from: “Poland under Nazi Occupation”, by Janusz Gumkowkski and Kazimierz Leszczynski
80. ^ Tooze, Adam, The Wages of Destruction, Viking, 2007, pp. 476–85, 538–49, ISBN 0670038261
81. ^ Heinrich Himmler Speech before SS Group Leaders Posen, Poland 1943. Hanover College Department of History
82. ^ Recomnetwork.org – recomnetwork Resources and Information. This website is for sale!
83. ^ SPLCenter.org: The Rift
84. ^ http://www.michnews.com/artman/publish/article_12516.shtml
85. ^ http://www.nola.com/news/t-p/frontpage/index.ssf?/base/news-4/1137481512176100.xml
86. ^ Race relations | Where black and brown collide | Economist.com
87. ^ Riot Breaks Out At Calif. High School, Melee Involving 500 People Erupts At Southern California School
88. ^ California Prisons on Alert After Weekend Violence
89. ^ JURIST – Paper Chase: Race riot put down at California state prison
90. ^ Racial segregation continues in California prisons
91. ^ A bloody conflict between Hispanic and black gangs is spreading across Los Angeles
92. ^ The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter
93. ^ Reconquistador
94. ^ Commentary: Black-brown friction waste of energy
95. ^ Filipino Migrant Workers in California
96. ^ African immigrants face bias from blacks
97. ^ La Voz de Aztlan
98. ^ BAW: The Hutchinson Report: Thanks to Latino Gangs, There’s a Zone in L.A. Where Blacks Risk Death if They Enter
99. ^ http://www.dewsburyreporter.co.uk/viewarticle.aspx?sectionid=28&articleid=2955186 http://ukpollingreport.co.uk/guide/seat-profiles/dewsbury bit
100. ^ DR Congo Pygmies appeal to UN
101. ^ UN Condems Botswana’s Racism. Survival International. August 31, 2002.
102. ^ MAURITANIA: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance. IRIN Africa. March 5, 2007.
103. ^ Arab militia use ‘rape camps’ for ethnic cleansing of Sudan. Telegraph. May 30, 2004.
104. ^ Racism at root of Sudan’s Darfur crisis. Csmonitor.com. July 14, 2004.
105. ^ BBC NEWS | Africa | Niger starts mass Arab expulsions
106. ^ Reuters AlertNet – Niger’s Arabs say expulsions will fuel race hate
107. ^ UNHCR | Refworld – The Leader in Refugee Decision Support
108. ^ “Ethiopian Israelis love their country but not the racism“. Ethiomedia.com. February 15, 2006.
109. ^ “Why Jews see racism in Israel“. Csmonitor.com. September 1, 2009.
110. ^ “Israeli drive to prevent Jewish girls dating Arabs“. The National. September 25, 2009.
111. ^ Black Africa Leaves China In Quandary. The New York Times. December 30, 1988.
112. ^ Fears of a ‘no-fun’ Olympics in Beijing. The Age. July 19, 2008.
113. ^ Out of Africa and into China, emigres struggle. Reuters. August 20, 2009.
114. ^ Anti-Semitism seen rising among France’s Muslims
115. ^ French Jews flee to Israel as racist attacks mount, The Independent, January 7, 2003
116. ^ Current Africa race riots like 1949 anti-Indian riots: minister. TheIndianStar.com. May 26, 2008.
117. ^ Martin Smith (1991). Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London,New Jersey: Zed Books. pp. 43–44,98,56–57,176.
118. ^ Asians v. Asians. TIME. 17 July 1964.
119. ^ Country Histories – Empire’s Children. Channel 4.
120. ^ 1972: Asians given 90 days to leave Uganda. BBC.
121. ^ BBC News | Analysis | Indonesia: Why ethnic Chinese are afraid
122. ^ Algeria: Xenophobia against Chinese on the rise in Africa. Afrik.com. August 5, 2009.
123. ^ “Rioters attack Chinese after Zambian poll“. Telegraph. October 3, 2006.
124. ^ “LESOTHO: Anti-Chinese resentment flares“. IRIN Africa. January 24, 2008.
125. ^ Spiller, Penny: “Riots highlight Chinese tensions“, BBC News, Friday, 21 April 2006, 18:57 GMT
126. ^ “Editorial: Racist moves will rebound on Tonga”, New Zealand Herald, November 23, 2001
127. ^ “Looters shot dead amid chaos of Papua New Guinea’s anti-Chinese riots“. The Australian. May 23, 2009.
128. ^ “Overseas and under siege“. The Economist. August 11, 2009.
129. ^ Future bleak for Fiji’s Indians. BBC News. July, 2000.
130. ^ Dealing with the dictator. The Australian. April 16, 2009.
131. ^ Fiji Islands: From Immigration to Emigration. Brij V. Lal. The Australian National University.
132. ^ “Guyana’s staggering crime crisis“. The Jamaica Observer. January 26, 2003.
133. ^ “Racism alive and well in Malaysia“. Asia Times. March 24, 2006.

Further reading

• Allen, Theodore. (1994). ‘The Invention of the White Race: Volume 1 London, UK: Verso.
• Allen, Theodore. (1997). The Invention of the White Race: Volume 2 London, UK: Verso.
• Barkan, Elazar (1992), The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
• Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2003. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
• Dain, Bruce (2002), A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
• Diamond, Jared (1999), “Guns, Germs, and Steel”, W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
• Ehrenreich, Eric (2007), The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
• Ewen & Ewen (2006), “Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality”, Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
• Feagin, Joe R. (2000). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. NY: Routledge.
• Gibson, Rich (2004) Against Racism and Nationalism http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/%7Ergibson/againstracism.htm
• Graves, Joseph. (2004) The Race Myth NY: Dutton.
• Ignatiev, Noel. 1995. How the Irish Became White NY: Routledge.
• Lentin, Alana. (2008) Racism: A Beginner’s Guide Oxford: One World.
• Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1952), Race and History, (UNESCO).
• Memmi, Albert, Racism, University of Minnesota Press (1999) ISBN 978-0816631650
• Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood’s Construction of Afro-American Culture, Westview Press.
• Smedley, Audrey and Brian D. Smedley. (2005) “Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real.” American Psychologist 60: 16-26.
• Smedley, Audrey. 2007. Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder, CO: Westview.
• Stokes, DaShanne (forthcoming), Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom, URL.
• Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), “Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth”, Political Power and Social Theory 11 (1997), 183–206. (historiography of race and racism)
• Taguieff, Pierre-André (1987), La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
• Trepagnier, Barbara. 2006. Silent Racism: How Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide. Paradigm Publishers.
• Twine, France Winddance (1997), Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil, Rutgers University Press.
• UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
• Tali Farkash, “Racists among us” in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), “Jewish Scene” section, April 20, 2007
• Winant, Howard The New Politics of Race (2004)
• Winant, Howard and Omi, Michael Racial Formation In The United States Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994).
• Wohlgemuth, Bettina. “Racism in the 21st century – How everybody can make a difference“, Saarbrücken, DE, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller e.K., (2007). ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5
• Wright W. D. (1998) “Racism Matters”, Westport, CT: Praeger.

Reh Dogg’s Random Thoughts Segment 14- Drug Abuse Interview

What is drug abuse and drug addiction?

Drug abuse, also known as substance abuse, involves the repeated and excessive use of chemical substances to achieve a certain effect. These substances may be “street” or “illicit” drugs, illegal due to their high potential for addiction and abuse. They also may be drugs obtained with a prescription, used for pleasure rather than for medical reasons.

Different drugs have different effects. Some, such as cocaine or methamphetamine, may produce an intense “rush” and initial feelings of boundless energy. Others, such as heroin, benzodiazepines or the prescription oxycontin, may produce excessive feelings of relaxation and calm. What most drugs have in common, though, is overstimulation of the pleasure center of the brain. With time, the brain’s chemistry is actually altered to the point where not having the drug becomes extremely uncomfortable and even painful.  This compelling urge to use, addiction, becomes more and more powerful, disrupting work, relationships, and health.

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Lies Cost Rush Limbaugh the RAMS

I would like to say that this news disturbs me on many levels. Being a black conservative male is not easy but nonetheless I will not be discouraged by the Liberal democrat blacks including my family. I feel that this is unjust that a sea of lie would prevent Rush Limbaugh from living out his dream to be an NFL owner. I’m very disgusted and won’t support football as much as I use to and refuse to watch any games the RAMS play. Jesse Jackson and Al Sharpton are not black leaders.

They strive off of the race game. They make me sick to my stomach. When are black people going to wake up and figure out that the democrat party is holding you down in the system? When will you stop letting community organizers dictate your life? When will you stand up on your own feet and take control of your family and stop living in poverty and try to better yourself? Why don’t you NFL owners grow some balls? How could you let M. Vick back into the league a man who doesn’t respect Gods creation of man’s best friends? I’m sure when Buress gets out of jail he’ll be back as well. We need to use common sense instead of listening to the mainstream media like CNN,ABC, and NBC. They don’t fact check stories and spread lies especially if it’s about a great conservative leader. I really hate what this country has become. All hail the king Barrack Insane Obama.

Fight back against Bullies

Bullying is a big problem. It can make kids feel hurt, scared, sick, lonely, embarrassed and sad. Bullies might hit, kick, or push to hurt people, or use words to call names, threaten, tease, or scare them. A bully might say mean things about someone, grab a kid’s stuff, make fun of someone, or leave a kid out of the group on purpose. Some bullies threaten people or try to make them do things they don’t want to do.

Bullying Is a Big Deal

Bullying is a big problem that affects lots of kids. Three-quarters of all kids say they have been bullied or teased. Being bullied can make kids feel really bad. The stress of dealing with bullies can make kids feel sick.

Bullying can make kids not want to play outside or go to school. It’s hard to keep your mind on schoolwork when you’re worried about how you’re going to deal with the bully near your locker. Bullying bothers everyone — and not just the kids who are getting picked on. Bullying can make school a place of fear and can lead to more violence and more stress for everyone.

Why Do Bullies Act That Way?

Some bullies are looking for attention. They might think bullying is a way to be popular or to get what they want. Most bullies are trying to make themselves feel more important. When they pick on someone else, it can make them feel big and powerful.

Some bullies come from families where everyone is angry and shouting all the time. They may think that being angry, calling names, and pushing people around is a normal way to act. Some bullies are copying what they’ve seen someone else do. Some have been bullied themselves.

Sometimes bullies know that what they are doing or saying hurts other people. But other bullies may not really know how hurtful their actions can be. Most bullies don’t understand or care about the feelings of others.

Bullies often pick on someone they think they can have power over. They might pick on kids who get upset easily or who have trouble sticking up for themselves. Getting a big reaction out of someone can make bullies feel like they have the power they want. Sometimes bullies pick on someone who is smarter than they are or different from them in some way. Sometimes bullies just pick on a kid for no reason at all.

Gemma told her mom that this one kid was picking on her for having red hair and freckles. She wanted to be like the other kids but she couldn’t change those things about herself. Finally Gemma made friends at her local swimming pool with a girl who wished she had red hair like Gemma’s. The two girls became great friends and she learned to ignore the mean girl’s taunts at school.

Bullying: How to Handle It

So now you know that bullying is a big problem that affects a lot of kids, but what do you do if someone is bullying you? Our advice falls into two categories: preventing a run-in with the bully, and what to do if you end up face-to-face with the bully.

Preventing a Run-In With a Bully

Don’t give the bully a chance. As much as you can, avoid the bully. You can’t go into hiding or skip class, of course. But if you can take a different route and avoid him or her, do so.

Stand tall and be brave. When you’re scared of another person, you’re probably not feeling your bravest. But sometimes just acting brave is enough to stop a bully. How does a brave person look and act? Stand tall and you’ll send the message: “Don’t mess with me.” It’s easier to feel brave when you feel good about yourself. See the next tip!

Feel good about you. Nobody’s perfect, but what can you do to look and feel your best? Maybe you’d like to be more fit. If so, maybe you’ll decide to get more exercise, watch less TV, and eat healthier snacks. Or maybe you feel you look best when you shower in the morning before school. If so, you could decide to get up a little earlier so you can be clean and refreshed for the school day.

Get a buddy (and be a buddy). Two is better than one if you’re trying to avoid being bullied. Make a plan to walk with a friend or two on the way to school or recess or lunch or wherever you think you might meet the bully. Offer to do the same if a friend is having bully trouble. Get involved if you see bullying going on in your school — tell an adult, stick up for the kid being bullied, and tell the bully to stop.

If The Bully Says or Does Something to You

Ignore the bully. If you can, try your best to ignore the bully’s threats. Pretend you don’t hear them and walk away quickly to a place of safety. Bullies want a big reaction to their teasing and meanness. Acting as if you don’t notice and don’t care is like giving no reaction at all, and this just might stop a bully’s behavior.

Stand up for yourself. Pretend to feel really brave and confident. Tell the bully “No! Stop it!” in a loud voice. Then walk away, or run if you have to. Kids also can stand up for each other by telling a bully to stop teasing or scaring someone else, and then walk away together. If a bully wants you to do something that you don’t want to do — say “no!” and walk away. If you do what a bully says to do, they will likely keep bullying you. Bullies tend to bully kids who don’t stick up for themselves.

Don’t bully back. Don’t hit, kick, or push back to deal with someone bullying you or your friends. Fighting back just satisfies a bully and it’s dangerous, too, because someone could get hurt. You’re also likely to get in trouble. It’s best to stay with others, stay safe, and get help from an adult.

Don’t show your feelings. Plan ahead. How can you stop yourself from getting angry or showing you’re upset? Try distracting yourself (counting backwards from 100, spelling the word ‘turtle’ backwards, etc.) to keep your mind occupied until you are out of the situation and somewhere safe where you can show your feelings.

Tell an adult. If you are being bullied, it’s very important to tell an adult. Find someone you trust and go and tell them what is happening to you. Teachers, principals, parents, and lunchroom helpers at school can all help to stop bullying. Sometimes bullies stop as soon as a teacher finds out because they’re afraid that they will be punished by parents. This is not tattling on someone who has done something small — bullying is wrong and it helps if everyone who gets bullied or sees someone being bullied speaks up.

What Happens to Bullies?

In the end, most bullies wind up in trouble. If they keep acting mean and hurtful, sooner or later they may have only a few friends left — usually other kids who are just like them. The power they wanted slips away fast. Other kids move on and leave bullies behind.

Luis lived in fear of Brian — every day he would give his lunch money to Brian but he still beat him up. He said that if Luis ever told anyone he would beat him up in front of all the other kids in his class. Luis even cried one day and another girl told everyone that he was a baby and had been crying. Luis was embarrassed and felt so bad about himself and about school. Finally, Brian got caught threatening Luis and they were both sent to the school counselor. Brian got in a lot of trouble at home. Over time, Brian learned how to make friends and ask his parents for lunch money. Luis never wanted to be friends with Brian but he did learn to act strong and more confident around him.

Some kids who bully blame others. But every kid has a choice about how to act. Some kids who bully realize that they don’t get the respect they want by threatening others. They may have thought that bullying would make them popular, but they soon find out that other kids just think of them as trouble-making losers.

The good news is that kids who are bullies can learn to change their behavior. Teachers, counselors, and parents can help. So can watching kids who treat others fairly and with respect. Bullies can change if they learn to use their power in positive ways. In the end, whether bullies decide to change their ways is up to them. Some bullies turn into great kids. Some bullies never learn.

But no one needs to put up with a bully’s behavior. If you or someone you know is bothered by a bully, talk to someone you trust. Everyone has the right to feel safe, and being bullied makes people feel unsafe. Tell someone about it and keep telling until something is done.

Relationship Psychoanalyze People

Psychoanalysis and Society

When psychoanalysis was at its beginnings, a collocation such as “psychoanalysis and society” would have been incomprehensible.  Psychoanalysis was nothing else but a method, as many others, used to treat mind disorders. Or such a method stands up from the field of medical practice, thus assuming a well determined role, circumscribed to the interests regarding the collectivity’s mental health. It was the period when it ruled the idea that mind disorders are hereditary maladies, related to certain brain degeneracy and thus they did not concern the society as a whole. Pretending to apply analytical practice to the healthy, normal life of the society would have been an attitude both absurd and blameworthy. Besides, it is symptomatic in this case the fact that, even today, there are still voices who impute psychoanalysis its interference in fields other than the medical one, as if by adopting this position psychoanalysis would outrun its competences (1).

There are people, even intellectual ones, who still believe psychoanalysis deals with madness and because of that they do not understand what it has to do with healthy people! Of course, all these persons did not read the famous book Psychopathology of Everyday Life, written by Freud at the beginning of the last century, and which made a point when proving that normal life also have its pretty often abnormal episodes. It was of course the moment when psychoanalysis rose above the narrow circle of its purely clinical interest, in order to take into account social segments and life categories, which, up to that point, had nothing to do with an abyssal research.

Christian ethics and psychology

Until the psychoanalysis appeared and imposed itself in the mentality of the West, the social life on the whole was controlled by Christian ethical and moral values. The last ones were logically resulting from a rudimentary psychology, a psychology (or, if we want to, an anthropology) which was limited to the analysis of the conscious life contents. A psychology which ignored absolutely everything concerning  the psychical unconscious and which, under the influence of the Christian mysticism (or the pagan one), was projecting outside the events of the unconscious psychic, creating a real army of spirits, demons, devils, etc., an army of negative astral entities, which were assuming all the defects of the human spirit.

These entities could have been controlled through magical means (exorcism, occult rituals, etc.), which offered the dominant church – except its statute of guide in heaven related issues – also the power to “tie and untie” the “secular” issues. Of course, the church did not hesitate to get the utmost from its enviable position in the hierarchy of social institutions, speculating the human credulity, naivety, superficiality and stupidity.

As long as human psychology was limited, as we have showed, to studying the conscious part of our mind, the problem of the individual’s relationship with himself, with the others, with the world as a whole, reduced itself to the attentive cultivation of Christian virtues and when this behavior was deviated from the normal rule, there were methods and means to attenuate the “sin”, to purge it or to anathematize it. Not to mention the deeds of the Inquisition, facts that could not have appeared in a mental and social climate that would have rejected the definition of our soul only on the level of the conscious life. Actually the Inquisition was an institution imposed by the circumstances of human mind evolution and the egoistic interests of individuals who have always known how to take advantage of circumstances and people.

Psychoanalysis and the soul reform

The appearance of psychoanalysis and its imposing on the Western conscience was the consequence of a total overthrow of the Christian vision on the human’s soul structure, an overthrow with no equal (or measure) in the events of human universal history. From the moment when Freud proved the existence of the psychic unconscious, he described the nature of its psychical contents (repressed sexual and aggressive impulses), showed the role of repression in the constitution of human ego, all that had been supreme value for the human society – meaning the ethical-moral Christian claims – and even the image of the one-dimensional human created by the Christianity collapsed dramatically. Even if today we still meet ideas and concepts which are related to the Christian ones – these contents are fervent and obstinately sustained especially by the Christian-orthodox church – they can not darken the obvious truths exhibited by the psychoanalytical knowledge. They only appear as some lamentable remainders of a culture which did not understand that life is not a projection of the conscious mind and of the puritan consciousness – on the contrary, if we want to be fair, we have to admit that life stubbornly objects to our efforts of rationally ordering it. Psychoanalysis shows precisely, in this sense, that most of the conscious human structures and attitudes are not dictated by rational intentions but by unconscious (unwilling) impulses.

This is how we come to the conclusions brilliantly exposed by Freud in his works: religion is a kind of collective neurosis and a desire to manipulate the outer world with the means of the (world of) desires. (1)

Freud discovers the relationship between
mental malady and unconscious life

We thus understand how it was possible for psychoanalysis, which had initially started on the field of medicine practice, to impose through its studies in other fields of human life: society, culture, religion, etc. This became imperative since Freud discovered the relationship between the mental malady and the effervescence of the unconscious life. Then, since he acknowledged the obvious fact that all people possessed an unconscious and that its activity could not be blocked or inhibited without causing painful distortions  of the human soul. And if the unconscious is present in each of us – whether we know it or not, weather we declare ourselves mentally healthy or sick – then it is obvious that our activity, no matter its nature, must come out from the subtle interference of the unconscious. In other words, in any human activity – religion, culture, politics, etc. – there is an undeniable mark of the psychical unconscious presence. And here we are already on the territory of psychoanalysis, in its major interest area.

Psychoanalysis becomes a method of analysis of our complex behavior

Psychoanalysis becomes, from being sort of appendix of medical practice, rather a method of social and cultural analysis with no precedent in human history, dethroning religion from its absolute role of sovereign over human thinking. (I do not mention philosophy because it is obvious for us today that modern philosophy, except existentialism, has nothing in common with real life. Consequently it can not pretend – as in once did, in the period of its blooming in ancient Greece – to explain the world and, at the same time, to offer a pertinent vision on the multiple and complex relationships which connect the individual with the inner and outer world).

In our modern society psychoanalysis becomes a pragmatic method of analysis for our complex behaviors, imposed by the various roles we have to play in the day-to-day life.

But what is the finality of this analysis?

As in the case of religion, this time psychoanalysis wants to understand why life is seek and which is the antidote for its sickness. Only that, unlike religion, psychoanalysis refuses any metaphysic argument, which comes from belief (revelation) and it is imposed dogmatically. It searches for pragmatic solutions, and when it does not find them, it tries to invent them. We thus understand that psychoanalysis, with its methods of investigation and diagnosis, appears as an extension of the extraordinary capacity of adapting to life of human mind, capacity which was inhibited by the plague of religious ideology.

Life, society, adaptation, we have here, if we want, a formula which simply synthesizes all that the human phenomenon includes. And psychoanalysis is capable to X-ray all these events with specific instruments extracted from its analytical practice.

Notes:
1. “Religion is an attempt to master the sensory world in which we are situated by means of the wishful world which we have developed within us as a result of biological and psychological necessities”. (Freud: New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis – 1933).

Psychoanalyze Yourself

NO CHEATING! That will take all the fun out of it.

This is a very interesting test. Try it.

Have a pen and paper handy before you read any further. As soon as you read a question, write the answer right away.

Make sure to answer questions 1-10 before moving on…NO CHEATING!!

Read the following questions, imagining the scenes in your mind, and write down the FIRST thing that you visualize. Do not think about the questions excessively.

1. You are not alone. You are walking in the woods. Who are you walking with?

2. You are walking in the woods. You see an animal. What kind of animal is it?

3. What interaction takes place between you and the animal?

4. You walk deeper in the woods. You enter a clearing and before you is your dream house. Describe its size?

5. Is your dream house surrounded by a fence?

6. You enter the house. You walk to the dining area and see the dining room table. Describe what you see on AND around the table.

7. You exit the house through the back door. Lying in the grass is a cup. What material is the cup made of?

8. What do you do with the cup?

9. You walk to the edge of the property, where you find yourself standing at the edge of a body of water. What type of body of water is it?

10. How will you cross the water?

This has been a relational psychology test. The answers given to the questions have been shown to have a relevance to values and ideals that we hold in our personal lives. The analysis follows:

1. The person who you are walking with is the most important person in your life.

2. The size of the animal is representative of your perception of the size of your problems.

3. The severity of the interaction you have with the animal is representative of how you deal with your problems. (passive/aggressive)

4. The size of your dream house is representative of the size of your ambition to resolve your problems.

5. No fence is indicative of an open personality. People are welcome at all times. The presence of a fence indicates a closed personality. You’d prefer people not to drop by unannounced.

6. If your answer did not include food, people, or flowers, then you are generally unhappy.

7. The durability of the material with which the cup is made of is representative of the perceived durability of your relationship with the person named in number 1. For example, styrafoam, plastic, and paper are all disposable, styrofoam, paper and glass are not durable, and metal and plastic are durable.

8. Your disposition of the cup is representative of your attitude towards the person in number 1.

9. The size of the body of water is representative of the size of your sexual desire.

10. How wet you get in crossing the water is indicative of the relative importance of your sex life.

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